History
By 1884 Cambodia was a virtual colony; soon after it was made part of the Indochina Union with Annam Tonkin Cochin-China and Laos. France continued to control the country even after the start of World War II through its Vichy government. In 1945 the Japanese dissolved the colonial administration and King Norodom Sihanouk declared an independent anti-colonial government under Prime Minister Son Ngoc Thanh in March 1945. This government was deposed by the Allies in October. Many of Son Ngoc Thanh's supporters escaped and continued to fight for independence as the Khmer Issarak. Although France recognized Cambodia as an autonomous kingdom within the French Union the drive for total independence continued resulting in a split between those who supported the political tactics of Sihanouk and those who supported the Khmer Issarak guerrilla movement.
In January 1953 Sihanouk named his father as regent and went into self-imposed exile refusing to return until Cambodia gained genuine independence. Full Independence Sihanouk's actions hastened the French government's July 4 1953 announcement of its readiness to perfect the independence and sovereignty of Cambodia Laos and Vietnam. Full independence came on November 9 1953 but the situation remained uncertain until a 1954 conference was held in Geneva to settle the French-Indochina war. All participants except the United States and the State of Vietnam associated themselves (by voice) with the final declaration. The Cambodian delegation agreed to the neutrality of the three Indochinese states but insisted on a provision in the ceasefire agreement that left the Cambodian government free to call for outside military assistance should the Viet Minh or others threaten its territory. Neutral Cambodia Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew the United States and South Vietnam became concerned and in 1969 the United States began a series of air raids against NVA/VC base areas inside Cambodia.
Throughout the 1960s domestic politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists including Paris-educated leaders such as Son Sen Ieng Sary and Saloth Sar (later known as Pol Pot) who led an insurgency under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). Sihanouk called these insurgents the Khmer Rouge literally the "Red Khmer." But the 1966 national assembly elections showed a significant swing to the right and Gen. Lon Nol formed a new government which lasted until 1967. During 1968 and 1969 the insurgency worsened. In August 1969 Gen. Lon Nol formed a new government. Prince Sihanouk went abroad for medical treatment in January 1970. The Khmer Republic and the War In March 1970 Gen. Lon Nol deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power. Son Ngoc Thanh announced his support for the new government. On October 9 the Cambodian monarchy was abolished and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic. Hanoi rejected the new republic's request for the withdrawal of NVA/VC troops and began to reinfiltrate some of the 2 000-4 000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954. They became a cadre in the insurgency. The United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government's armed forces which were engaged against both the Khmer Rouge insurgents and NVA/VC forces. In April 1970 US and South Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA/VC base areas. Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed NVA/VC forces proved elusive and moved deeper into Cambodia. NVA/VC units overran many Cambodian army positions while the Khmer Rouge expanded their small-scale attacks on lines of communication. The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity among its three principal figures: Lon Nol Sihanouk's cousin Sirik Matak and National Assembly leader In Tam. Lon Nol remained in power in part because none of the others was prepared to take his place.
In 1972 a constitution was adopted a parliament elected and Lon Nol became president. But disunity the problems of transforming a 30 000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200 000 men and spreading corruption weakened the civilian administration and army. The insurgency continued to grow with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. But inside Cambodia Pol Pot and Ieng Sary asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists many of whom were purged. At the same time the Khmer Rouge forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons.
By 1973 the Khmer Rouge were fighting major battles against government forces on their own and they controlled nearly 60% of Cambodia's territory and 25% of its population. The government made three unsuccessful attempts to enter into negotiations with the insurgents but by 1974 the Khmer Rouge were operating as divisions and virtually all NVA/VC combat forces had moved into South Vietnam. Lon Nol's control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in Phnom Penh and other cities. On New Year's Day 1975 Communist troops launched an offensive which in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war destroyed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces while other Khmer Rouge units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. Phnom Penh and other cities were subjected to daily rocket attacks causing thousands of civilian casualties. Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17--5 days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.
Democratic Kampuchea Many Cambodians welcomed the arrival of peace but the Khmer Rouge soon turned Cambodia--which it called Democratic Kampuchea (DK)--into a land of horror. Immediately after its victory the new regime ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns sending the entire urban population out into the countryside to till the land. Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in new villages which lacked food agricultural implements and medical care. Many starved before the first harvest and hunger and malnutrition--bordering on starvation--were constant during those years. Those who resisted or who questioned orders were immediately executed as were most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts. Within the CPK the Paris-educated leadership--Pol Pot Ieng Sary Nuon Chea and Son Sen--was in control.
A new constitution in January 1976 established Democratic Kampuchea as a Communist People's Republic and a 250-member Assembly of the Representatives of the People of Kampuchea (PRA) was selected in March to choose the collective leadership of a State Presidium the chairman of which became the head of state. Prince Sihanouk resigned as head of state on April 4. On April 14 after its first session the PRA announced that Khieu Samphan would chair the State Presidium for a 5-year term. It also picked a 15-member cabinet headed by Pol Pot as prime minister.
Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest. The new government sought to restructure Cambodian society completely. Remnants of the old society were abolished and Buddhism suppressed. Agriculture was collectivized and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system. The regime controlled every aspect of life and reduced everyone to the level of abject obedience through terror. Torture centers were established and detailed records were kept of the thousands murdered there.
Public executions of those considered unreliable or with links to the previous government were common. Few succeeded in escaping the military patrols and fleeing the country. Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands more died of starvation and disease (both under the Khmer Rouge and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978). Estimates of the dead range from 1 to 3 million out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million.
Democratic Kampuchea's relations with Vietnam and Thailand worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist the CPK was fiercely anti-Vietnamese and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with China and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-Soviet rivalry with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea's military attacked villages in Vietnam. The regime broke relations with Hanoi in December 1977 protesting Vietnam's attempt to create an Indochina Federation. In mid-1978 Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season. In December 1978 Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under Heng Samrin a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer Communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector--like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen--who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978.
In late December 1978 Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia capturing Phnom Penh on January 7 and driving the remnants of Democratic Kampuchea's army westward toward Thailand. The Vietnamese Occupation On January 10 1979 the Vietnamese installed Heng Samrin as head of state in the new People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The Vietnamese army continued its pursuit of Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge forces. At least 600 000 Cambodians displaced during the Pol Pot era and the Vietnamese invasion began streaming to the Thai border in search of refuge. The international community responded with a massive relief effort coordinated by the United States through UNICEF and the World Food Program.
More than $400 million was provided between 1979 and 1982 of which the United States contributed nearly $100 million. At one point more than 500 000 Cambodians were living along the Thai-Cambodian border and more than 100 000 in holding centers inside Thailand. Vietnam's occupation army of as many as 200 000 troops controlled the major population centers and most of the countryside from 1979 to September 1989. The Heng Samrin regime's 30 000 troops were plagued by poor morale and widespread desertion. Resistance to Vietnam's occupation continued and there was some evidence that Heng Samrin's PRK forces provided logistic and moral support to the guerrillas. A large portion of the Khmer Rouge's military forces eluded Vietnamese troops and established themselves in remote regions. The non-communist resistance consisting of a number of groups which had been fighting the Khmer Rouge after 1975--including Lon Nol-era soldiers--coalesced in 1979-80 to form the Khmer People's National Liberation Armed Forces (KPNLAF) which pledged loyalty to former Prime Minister Son Sann and Moulinaka (Movement pour la Liberation Nationale de Kampuchea) loyal to Prince Sihanouk.
In 1979 Son Sann formed the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) to lead the political struggle for Cambodia's independence. Prince Sihanouk formed his own organization FUNCINPEC and its military arm the Armee Nationale Sihanoukienne (ANS) in 1981. Warfare followed a wet season/dry season rhythm after 1980. The heavily-armed Vietnamese forces conducted offensive operations during the dry seasons and the resistance forces held the initiative during the rainy seasons.
In 1982 Vietnam launched a major offensive against the main Khmer Rouge base at Phnom Melai in the Cardamom Mountains. Vietnam switched its target to civilian camps near the Thai border in 1983 launching a series of massive assaults backed by armor and heavy artillery against camps belonging to all three resistance groups. Hundreds of civilians were injured in these attacks and more than 80 000 were forced to flee to Thailand. Resistance military forces however were largely undamaged. In the 1984-85 dry season offensive the Vietnamese again attacked base camps of all three resistance groups. Despite stiff resistance from the guerrillas the Vietnamese succeeded in eliminating the camps in Cambodia and drove both the guerrillas and civilian refugees into neighboring Thailand. The Vietnamese concentrated on consolidating their gains during the 1985-86 dry season including an attempt to seal guerrilla infiltration routes into the country by forcing Cambodian laborers to construct trench and wire fence obstacles and minefields along virtually the entire Thai-Cambodian border. Within Cambodia Vietnam had only limited success in establishing its client Heng Samrin regime which was dependent on Vietnamese advisors at all levels. Security in some rural areas was tenuous and major transportation routes were subject to interdiction by resistance forces. The presence of Vietnamese throughout the country and their intrusion into nearly all aspects of Cambodian life alienated much of the populace. The settlement of Vietnamese nationals both former residents and new immigrants further exacerbated anti-Vietnamese sentiment. Reports of the numbers involved vary widely with some estimates as high as 1 million.
By the end of this decade Khmer nationalism began to reassert itself against the traditional Vietnamese enemy. In 1986 Hanoi claimed to have begun withdrawing part of its occupation forces. At the same time Vietnam continued efforts to strengthen its client regime the PRK and its military arm the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Armed Forces (KPRAF). These withdrawals continued over the next 2 years although actual numbers were difficult to verify. Vietnam's proposal to withdraw its remaining occupation forces in 1989-90--the result of ongoing international pressure--forced the PRK to begin economic and constitutional reforms in an attempt to ensure future political dominance.
In April 1989 Hanoi and Phnom Penh announced that final withdrawal would take place by the end of September 1989. The military organizations of Prince Sihanouk (ANS) and of former Prime Minister Son Sann (KPNLAF) underwent significant military improvement during the 1988-89 period and both expanded their presence in Cambodia's interior. These organizations provide a political alternative to the Vietnamese-supported People's Republic of Kampuchea [PRK] and the murderous Khmer Rouge. The last Vietnamese troops left Cambodia in September of 1989. Peace Efforts From July 30 to August 30 1989 representatives of 18 countries the four Cambodian parties and the UN Secretary General met in Paris in an effort to negotiate a comprehensive settlement. They hoped to achieve those objectives seen as crucial to the future of post-occupation Cambodia: a verified withdrawal of the remaining Vietnamese occupation troops the prevention of the return to power of the Khmer Rouge and genuine self-determination for the Cambodian people.
The Paris Conference on Cambodia was able to make some progress in such areas as the workings of an international control mechanism the definition of international guarantees for Cambodia's independence and neutrality plans for the repatriation of refugees and displaced persons the eventual reconstruction of the Cambodia economy and ceasefire procedures. However complete agreement among all parties on a comprehensive settlement remained elusive until August 28 1990 when after eight months of negotiations a framework for comprehensive political settlement was agreed upon. Cambodia's Renewal
On October 23, 1991 the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement giving the UN full authority to supervise a ceasefire repatriate the displaced Khmer along the border with Thailand disarm and demobilize the factional armies and to prepare the country for free and fair elections Prince Sihanouk President of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC) and other members of the SNC returned to Phnom Penh in November 1991 to begin the resettlement process in Cambodia. The UN Advance Mission for Cambodia (UNAMIC) was deployed at the same time to maintain liaison among the factions and begin demining operations to expedite the repatriation of approximately 370 000 Cambodians from Thailand. On March 16 1992 the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) under UNSYG Special Representative Yasushi Akashi and Lt. General John Sanderson arrived in Cambodia to begin implementation of the UN Settlement Plan. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees began full-scale repatriation in March 1992.
UNTAC grew into a 22 000 strong civilian and military peacekeeping force to conduct free and fair elections for a constituent assembly. Over four million Cambodians (about 90% of eligible voters) participated in the May 1993 elections although the Khmer Rouge or Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK) whose forces were never actually disarmed or demobilized barred some people from participating in the 10-15 percent of the country (holding six percent of the population) it controls. Prince Ranariddh's FUNCINPEC Party was the top vote recipient with 45.5% vote followed by Hun Sen's Cambodian People's Party and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party respectively. FUNCINPEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election.
The parties represented in the 120-member Assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new Constitution which was promulgated September 24. It established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers respectively in the Royal Cambodian Government (RCG).
The Constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights. ECONOMY In spite of recent progress the Cambodian economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of war and internal strife. Per capita income although rapidly increasing is low compared with most neighboring countries. The main domestic activity on which most rural households depend is agriculture and its related sub-sectors. Manufacturing output is varied but is not very extensive and is mostly conducted on a small-scale and informal basis. The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering-related services.
During 1995 the government implemented firm stabilization policies under difficult circumstances. Overall macroeconomic performance was good. Growth in 1995 was estimated at 7% because of improved agricultural production (rice in particular). Strong growth in construction and services continued. Inflation dropped from 26% in 1994 to only 6% in 1995. Imports increased as a result of the availability of external financing. Exports also increased due to an increase in log exports. With regard to the budget both the current and overall deficits were lower than originally targeted. Cambodia's emerging democracy has received strong international support. Under the mandate carried out by the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) $1.72 billion was spent in an effort to bring basic security stability and democratic rule to the country. Regarding economic assistance official donors had pledged $880 million at the Ministerial Conference on the Rehabilitation of Cambodia (MCRRC) in Tokyo in June 1992 to which pledges of $119 million were added in September 1993 at the meeting of the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC) in Paris and $643 million at the March 1994 ICORC meeting in Tokyo. To date therefore the total amount pledged for Cambodia's rehabilitation is approximately $1.6 billion.
The Splendors of Angkor Over a period of 300 years between 900 and 1200 AD the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor produced some of the world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces on the northern shore of the Tonle Sap near the present town of Siem Reap. The Angkor area stretches 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. Some 72 major temples or other buildings dot the area. The principal temple Angkor Wat was built between 1112 and 1150 by Suryavarman II. With walls nearly one-half mile on each side Angkor Wat portrays the Hindu cosmology with the central towers representing Mount Meru home of the gods; the outer walls the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat the oceans beyond. Angkor Thom the capital city built after the Cham sack of 1177 is surrounded by a 300-foot wide moat. Construction of Angkor Thom coincided with a change from Hinduism to Buddhism. Temples were altered to display images of the Buddha and Angkor Wat became a major Buddhist shrine. During the 15th century nearly all of Angkor was abandoned after Siamese attacks except Angkor Wat which remained a shrine for Buddhist pilgrims. The great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century when French archaeologists began a long restoration process. France established the Angkor Conservancy in 1908 to direct restoration of the Angkor complex. For the next 64 years the conservancy worked to clear away the forest repair foundations and install drains to protect the buildings from their most insidious enemy: water. After 1953 the conservancy became a joint project of the French and Cambodian Governments. Some temples were carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. Since the Royal Cambodian Government came to power in 1993 international tourism to Angkor has been on the increase. US-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS The United States recognized Cambodia on February 7 1950 and between 1955 and 1963 provided $409.6 million in economic grant aid and $83.7 million in military assistance. This aid was used primarily to repair damage caused by the first Indochina war to support internal security forces and for the construction of an all-weather road to the seaport of Sihanoukville which gave Cambodia its first direct access to the sea and access to the southwestern hinterlands. Relations deteriorated in the early 1960s. Diplomatic relations were broken by Cambodia in May 1965 but were reestablished on July 2 1969. US relations continued after the establishment of the Khmer Republic until the US mission was evacuated on April 12 1975. During the 1970-75 war the United States provided $1.18 billion in military assistance and $503 million in economic assistance. The United States condemned the brutal character of the Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979. At the same time the United States opposed the military occupation of Cambodia by Vietnam and supported ASEAN's efforts to achieve a comprehensive political settlement of the problem. This was accomplished on October 23 1991 when the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement. The United States opened a Mission in Phnom Penh on November 11 1991 headed by Mr. Charles H. Twining Jr. designated U.S. Special Representative to the SNC. On January 3 1992 the U.S. embargo was lifted normalizing economic relations with Cambodia. The U.S. also ended blanket opposition to lending to Cambodia by international financial institutions. When the freely-elected Royal Cambodian Government was formed on September 24 1993 the United States and the Kingdom of Cambodia immediately established full diplomatic relations. The United States continues to support efforts in Cambodia to build democratic institutions promote human rights foster economic development eliminate corruption improve security achieve the fullest possible accounting for POW/MIAs and to bring members of the Khmer Rouge to justice for their crimes. TRAVEL NOTES A passport is required for travel to Cambodia. An airport visa valid for a one-month stay is available upon arrival in the country from the Ministry of National Security for a fee (currently $20). Information on travel in Cambodia may be obtained by contacting the Royal Embassy of Cambodia 4500/4530 16th Street NW Washington DC 20011; tel. (202) 726-7742; fax. (202) 726-8381. Updated information on travel and security in Cambodia is available through the U.S. Department of State (202-647-5225) or the U.S. Embassy in Phnom Penh (855-23- 426-436). Americans in Cambodia are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy.
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